What Is an Argument

When people create and critique arguments, its helpful to understand what an argument is and is not. Sometimes an argument is seen as a verbal fight, but that is not what is meant in these discussions. Sometimes a person thinks they are offering an argument when they are only providing assertions. What Is an Argument? Perhaps the simplest explanation of what an argument is comes from Monty Python’s Argument Clinic sketch: An argument is a connected series of statements intended to establish a definite proposition. ...an argument is an intellectual process... contradiction is just the automatic gainsaying of anything the other person says. This may have been a comedy sketch, but it highlights a common misunderstanding: to offer an argument, you cannot simply make a claim or gainsay what others claim. An argument is a deliberate attempt to move beyond just making an assertion. When offering an argument, you are offering a series of related statements which represent an attempt to support that assertion — to give others good reasons to believe that what you are asserting is true rather than false. Here are examples of assertions: 1. Shakespeare wrote the play Hamlet.2. The Civil War was caused by disagreements over slavery.3. God exists.4. Prostitution is immoral. Sometimes you hear such statements referred to as propositions. Technically speaking, a proposition is the informational content of any statement or assertion. To qualify as a proposition, a statement must be capable of being either true or false. What Makes a Successful  Argument? The above represent positions people hold, but which others may disagree with. Merely making the above statements do not constitute an argument, no matter how often one repeats the assertions. To create an argument, the person making the claims must offer further statements which, at least in theory, support the claims. If the claim is supported, the argument is successful; if the claim is not supported, the argument fails. This is the purpose of an argument: to offer reasons and evidence for the purpose of establishing the truth value of a proposition, which can mean either establishing that the proposition is true or establishing that the proposition is false. If a series of statements does not do this, it isn’t an argument. Three Parts of an Argument Another aspect of understanding arguments is to examine the parts. An argument can be broken down into three major components: premises, inferences, and a conclusion. Premises are statements of (assumed) fact which are supposed to set forth the reasons and/or evidence for believing a claim. The claim, in turn, is the conclusion: what you finish with at the end of an argument. When an argument is simple, you may just have a couple of premises and a conclusion: 1. Doctors earn a lot of money. (premise)2. I want to earn a lot of money. (premise)3. I should become a doctor. (conclusion) Inferences are the reasoning parts of an argument. Conclusions are a type of inference, but always the final inference. Usually, an argument will be complicated enough to require inferences linking the premises with the final conclusion: 1. Doctors earn a lot of money. (premise)2. With a lot of money, a person can travel a lot. (premise)3. Doctors can travel a lot. (inference, from 1 and 2)4. I want to travel a lot. (premise)5. I should become a doctor. (from 3 and 4) Here we see two different types of claims which can occur in an argument. The first is a factual claim, and this purports to offer evidence. The first two premises above are factual claims and usually, not much time is spent on them — either they are true or they are not. The second type is an inferential claim — it expresses the idea that some matter of fact is related to the sought-after conclusion. This is the attempt to link the factual claim to the conclusion in such a way as to support the conclusion. The third statement above is an inferential claim because it infers from the previous two statements that doctors can travel a lot. Without an inferential claim, there would be no clear connection between the premises and the conclusion. It is rare to have an argument where inferential claims play no role. Sometimes you will come across an argument where inferential claims are needed, but missing — you won’t be able to see the connection from factual claims to a conclusion and will have to ask for them. Assuming such inferential claims really are there, you will be spending most of your time on them when evaluating and critiquing an argument. If the factual claims are true, it is with the inferences that an argument will stand or fall, and it is here where you will find fallacies committed. Unfortunately, most arguments aren’t presented in such a logical and clear manner as the above examples, making them difficult to decipher sometimes. But every argument which really is an argument should be capable of being reformulated in such a manner. If you cannot do that, then it is reasonable to suspect that something is wrong.

Psychology and the Nature of Humanity - 1227 Words

Introduction. The American Psychologist Association (APA) defines psychology as ‘the study of the mind and behaviour . The discipline embraces all aspects of the human experience — from the functions of the brain to the actions of nations, from child development to care for the aged. ‘(Association, 2014). With such an extensive definition, it is not overly surprising that its scientific kudos has been used to propagate political dogma, including abominable beliefs such as the innate inferiority of black people (Howitt and Owusu-Bempah, 1994) and to facilitate the legalislation of racist laws such as the American Jim Crow laws that placed severe restrictions on the rights and privileges of African Americans in 1877 (Brown and Stentiford,†¦show more content†¦They have psychological needs. For example, deprive them of acceptance and their development is likely to warp. This is the truth underlying anthropologist Ronald Rohner’s classic work on rejection. Rohner studied 118 cultures around the world and found that in each culture, kids who are rejected turn out badly, so much so that Rohner called rejection a â€Å"psychological malignancy.† AFRICAN BABIES AND MASSAGE-problems of psych research-diaries less likely in illiterate countries but memory studies unreliable Education. Cognitive development. Sociocultural biologists believe that how we develop, and particularly how we learn to think is primarily a function of the social and cultural environment in which we are reared (Bjorklund, 2005). Clearly, this suggests that numerous indigenous psychologies would be required to improve our understanding of how the mind develops. In contrast, more traditional views of cognitive development, such as those of Jean Piaget, suggest that there are ‘cognitive universals’ which are common aspects of children’s development found throughout the world. These ‘developmental psychologists’ accept that different children learn to solve problems which are relevant to their own lives and culture. However, the main //// they theorise that all children pass through universal stages in human development which provide a possible explanation as to when and how a child is ready toShow MoreRelatedThe Integration Perspective And The Christian Psychology Perspective913 Words   |  4 PagesWithin the psychology field and in society, there is a common belief that theological principles, scripture, Christianity, and psychological principles are not compatible. Instead they believe that modern psychology is secular, scientific, and sacrilegious. 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In Focus Hymoptera Free Essays

Spiders are perhaps the most popular insects at present, due to the worldwide release of the movie, Spiderman. Most of us have been dreaming of being bitten by an insect and using its capabilities to be of help to society – as super heroes! When I was a child, bees and wasps running around the garden terrified me. Carrying on, fear for these insects sparked interest in me to study them, specifically about how these insects complete the balance of nature. We will write a custom essay sample on In Focus: Hymoptera or any similar topic only for you Order Now This large group of inects belong to Hymenopetra, consisting of sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants. As such, the group was given the name referring to the membranous wings of the majority of the insects making up the population. The major role played by this group is that of being pollinators for flowering plants; thus, plants would not be able to reproduce without the help of this insects. All organisms have their own way of protecting themselves. Insects accord such self-protection by its horny or leathery cuticle for defense. Moreover, the dermal glands of various insects are capable of producing chemical substances that can cause itching to other organisms, birds in particular. For many hymenopterans, the poisons produced are from the plants they feed on. In female hymenopterans, their reproductive system has been modified; being capable of producing toxic proteins. Once injected onto its prey this causes paralysis to the nervous system. Stings are also used by hymenopterans for protecting themselves like that of wasps, bees and ants. These insects are also capable of blending to their environment, making it hard for their enemies to find them. The cells have its moving pigment granules, hence allowing the coloration to occur (Agren and Hallberg, 1996; 443) The chemical communication among Hymenopterans is important in predicting their behavior. Among Hymenopterans who are of the social kind, there are several glands producing volatile secretion. The antennae are the most important body structure in perceiving signals. Also their body structures can be used to map out the population, insects having the same antenna structure would belong to the same group, performing a particular function (Felicioli, Romani and Bin, 1998; 140). The chemical defenses and poisons produced do not only serve as protection but as a warning as well. Most hymenopterans are of the social kind. The Dufour gland of Pulvergus rufuscens has been proven to vary as well, depending on the position that the insect has in its society. Queens have a hypertrophied gland with extended lumen and a thin epithelium indicating that it is not active in secretion, while the workers have thicker linings for secretory purposes. Hence, these insects have their status in their own society, doing its particular function as a member of its group (Grasso, et. al, 2004; 152). Hymenopterans particularly the ones belonging to superfamily Proctotrupidea are very small but are considered pests for rice, sugar, jute and cotton. The variety of these hymenopterans are vast, thus the roles they have in nature are also different. There are some species belonging to the same group, acting as pollinators, serving the plants and man while there are those particularly the Proctotrupoidea, who are pests for man (Bin and Vinson, 1986; 132). Pesticides and other chemicals have been used for toxifying these insects. Hymenopterans, particularly the bees are capable of producing substances that are toxic for humans. The honey they obtained from the nectars of different flowers can be toxic and psychoactive for humans. Honey produced from the nectar of Azalea pontica has alkaloids which are very poisonous for humans but not for bees. The Roman soldiers who ate honey during the time of Pompey the Great became delirious and vomited the honey, causing their easy defeat. Moreover, honey from Andromeda flowers has grayanotoxins which can paralyze the limbs and diaphragm, resulting to death (Mclaren and Rotundo, 1985; 74). The chemical substances produced from the body of these insects are for self-protection. If stung by its antenna, one undergoes the process of natural body healing. Antidotes and medicines are not precscribed. The chemical produced by Ichneumon eumerus wasp and Maculinea rebeli butterfly in western Europe has resulted in Myrmica schencki ants being used as pawns. The ants are deceived as its accepts the caterpillar into their colony while the wasp uses its own substances to make the caterpillar as ant’s prey. If these chemicals can be synthesized, it can take the place of toxin used as ant traps (Grasso et. al, 2004; 152). Therapeutic gains from the chemical substances derived from these organisms are yet to be proven. Still, their role as pollinators for flowering plants is the major role they play in maintaining the balance of nature. As for the energy relations of these organisms to humans and the environment, biomass energy from plants is being used by this group to permit pollination. Further, the energy given off by these insects to plants is used by man as the latter eats the plant. In addition, as these organisms decay, it gives back the energy to the soil which will be of further use for man (Mclaren and Rotundo, 1985; 75). Though insects are one the major populations existing, the claims of man evolving from these creatures seem not plausible. The genetic traces used by some scientists and researches must be further studied. The chemical processes and the internal features of this group must be further examined to give precise results suggesting its importance to man and the environment. References Agren L. , Hallberg E. (1996) Flagellar sensilla of bumble bee males (Hymenoptera, Apidae, Bombus), Apidologie 27, 433–444. Bin F. , Vinson S. B. (1986) Morphology of the antennal sex-gland in male Trissolcus basalis (Woll. ) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae), an egg parasitoid of the green stink bug, Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), Int. J. Insect Morphol. 15, 129–138. Felicioli A. , Isidoro N. , Romani R. , Bin F. (1998) Ethological and morphological analysis of behavior in Osmia cornuta Latr. (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae), Insect Soc. Life 2, 137–144. Grasso, D. , Mori,A. , Le Moli, F. , and Johan Billen. (2004). Morpho-functional comparison of the Dufour gland in the female castes of the Amazon ant Polyergus rufescens (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) . Zoomorphology. 124. (3). 149-153. McLaren, J. , and Rotundo, L. (1985). Biology. D. C. Heath and Company. Lexington, Massachusettes. 67-75. How to cite In Focus: Hymoptera, Papers

Ppda free essay sample

3) The procuring entity shall deal with the request 108 No. 3 Public Procurement and Disposal 2005 for quotations in accordance with the following — (a) the procuring entity shall give the request to such persons as the procuring entity determines; (b) the request must be given to as many persons as necessary to ensure effective competition and must be given to at least three persons, unless that is not possible; and (c) the procuring entity shall give the request to each person early enough so that the person has adequate time to prepare a quotation. (4) The successful quotation shall be the quotation with the lowest price that meets the requirements set out in the request for quotations. 5) The following shall apply with respect to the contract resulting from a procurement by a request for quotations — (a) the procuring entity shall place a purchase order with the person submitting the successful quotation; and (b) the person submitting the successful quotation shall confirm the purchase order in writing. We will write a custom essay sample on Ppda or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page (6) If there will not be effective competition unless foreign persons participate, the following shall apply — (a) the request for quotations must be in English; (b) the technical requirements must, to the extent compatible with requirements under Kenyan law, be based on international standards or standards widely used in international trade; 109 No. 3 Public Procurement and Disposal 2005 c) a person submitting a quotation may, in quoting prices or providing security, use a currency that is widely used in international trade and that the request for quotations specifically allows to be used; and (d) any general and specific conditions to which the contract will be subject must be of a kind generally used in international trade. E Procedure for low-value procurements When may be used. 90. (1) A procuring entity may use a low-value procurement procedure if — (a) the estimated value of the goods, works or services being procured are less than or equal to the prescribed maximum value for that low-value procurement procedure; and (b) any other prescribed conditions for the use of the low-value procurement procedure are satisfied. (2) A regulation prescribing a maximum value for a low-value procurement procedure or prescribing conditions for the use of such a procedure may prescribe different values or